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"Crusading Journalism: Changing Public Attitudes and Policy-Making Agendas"
Abstract “Crusading Journalism: Changing Public Attitudes and Policy-Making Agendas” is the third study in a series of tests determine the impact mass media (particularly news outlets) had on the general audience and on public officials. This third study focuses particularly on the medium of television and more specifically, investigative reporting. The results indicate that television, more than print and many other traditional medias, has the ability to greatly impact the perceptions a viewer holds on a topic being covered. This impact was measured through pre-viewing and post-viewing questionnaires given to subjects after watching a series produced by a local television station named, “Beating Justice.” This series exposed a number of offenses committed by the local police department that included physical abuse, racial profiling, and a lack of reprimand for the offenders. After viewing the series, viewers had a greater concern for the topic and often had the urge to become an active participant in the debate. This influence is indicative of the power of television to not only provide facts, but to also provide the viewer with the experience of “Being there.” This article is written by Donna R. Leff, David L. Protess and Stephen C. Brooks Key Concepts The crucial measurement for the study analyzed in “Crusading Journalism” is the agenda-setting effects of television news broadcast. With a particular emphasis on investigative reporting, the authors explain why the power of the camera heightens the audience reaction to it. Instead of print, in which a story can be isolated and separate rom the reader’s world, television delivers that world to millions of viewers in the comfort of their living room. However, it is not just the immediacy of televisions (Live broadcasts, satellite transmission around the world) that attracts viewers. The footage itself allows them to be more immersed in the physical space of the world on the television and to witness the characters involved more intimately- we can see them, hear their voice, and understand their body language. The ability of the camera to mechanically reproduce human experience allows the viewer to not only understand a situation, but also simulate a first-hand account of the story being covered. This active engagement fuels the viewer’s personal negotiation with the situations and character presented, and increases the personal investment viewers give towards each story. This investment, Leff, Protess, and Brooks hypothesize, is the reason television is such an influential medium. In fact, this investment is crucial if reforms are to ever come to into fruition as the result of investigative reporting. In the case of the series that exposed police brutality in Chicago, the authors hypothesized that post-test interviews would indicate that members now would consider police brutality a more important issue than before. Their formal hypothesis states, “In post-test interviews, treatment group memebers would consider police brutality a more important issue, would increase their knowledge of police brutality to incorporate facts recealed in the series, and change their attitudes, feelings, and actions about the problem,” (Leff; Protess; Brooks, 306). The findings of this study supported the hypothesis in each group that was observed. Both the general public and government officials in charge of policy showed an apparent increase in their concern for the topic. While policymakers appeared to exhibit less of a marked shift than the general public reported, both groups displayed a higher level of concern for the topic. These findings were compared against a constant factor of non-viewers, whose shift in opinion/concern were insignificant and ultimately negligible changes. With consideration of these statistical results and again address the original argument or the article, it becomes evident that television can alter viewer opinion and ultimately viewer action. This efficacy of television is the result of the affordance this particular medium allows for. The authors explain, “’Beating Justice,” with its interview with brutalized victims and disguised voices, shadow-faced former police officers ,certainly was powerful drama,” (Leff; Protess; Brooks, 311). The evidence presented in the series was overwhelmingly refutable. As noted in “Can Film Show the Invisible?” many videographers often operate the camera as if it were a subject in the event it is recording. It is a privileged spectator and is intended to provide an unbiased and un-manipulated record of events. Suhr and Willerslev continue to argue for the use of montage and many scholars believe that footage can never truly be biased (Length of take, angle, color correction, etc.) because of the multitude of decisions involved in filming. However, television newscasts provide the verisimilitude necessary to create a world in addition to interviews and statistics to help understand that world. This is why the powerful medium of television has begun, influenced, and resolved national debates and issues. Further Readings Erbring, Lutz, Edie N. Goldenberg, and Arthur H. Miller. "Front-Page News And Real-World Cues: A New Look At Agenda-Setting By The Media." American Journal Of Political Science 24.1 (1980): 16. Business Source Complete. Web. This article combats the notion that mass media is simply a “mirror” or “reflection” of the agenda of the general public. Instead of analyzing news as a means of determining which issues must have the most salience, it becomes necessary to recognize the agenda-setting goals present in any media. Covering certain stories while overlooking others and the construction of these stories defeats the notions that mass media simply responds to the environment around it. Rather, it contributes to that environment and can guide how it operates. Lozovina, Boris, Jelena Jurišić, and Damira Lozovina. "Agenda-Setting Function Of Mass Media And The Concept Of Corporate Social Responsibility. (2013): 30-37. SPORTDiscus. Web. 18 This articles describes “Corporate social responsibility” (CSR) in relation to the commercial interest of news media outlets and the social responsibility they must maintain. Mass media is forced to balance between these two often-conflicting interests. While the internal operations of mass media are predominately capital-oriented, society expects them to contribute and serve the community faithfully. McClure, Robert D., and Thomas E. Patterson. "Print Vs. Network News." Journal Of Communication 26.(1976): 23-26. Communication & Mass Media Complete. Web. This article describes the''' differences between print and television news outlets. McLure argues that while print has an everyday effect on its viewers, television can give a subject large-scale and immediate salience. As he explains, a newspaper is received at the viewer’s own discretion and he is reading it specifically to learn the news. On the contrary, news reports may appear on the television unintentionally or may break through regular programming, giving it more sense of spontaneity and immediacy. ' ' '''Molotch, Harvey, and Marilyn Lester. "News As Purposive Behavior: On The Strategic Use Of Routine Events, Accidents, And Scandals." American Sociological Review 39.1 (1974): 101-112. SocINDEX with Full Text. Web. This article argues that the world does not exist to be reported. Instead, news reports are constructs that carefully tailor reality to fit an agenda. Creating the news is a process and each step of that process attempts to reveal different kinds of information. Wolfe, Michelle, Bryan D. Jones, and Frank R. Baumgartner. "A Failure To Communicate: Agenda Setting In Media And Policy Studies." Political Communication 30.2 (2013): 175-192. Communication & Mass Media Complete. Web. This article advocates for further study into how media links to policy outcomes, policy change, or agenda changes. Rejecting traditional linear models, scholars have begun to recognize the complex and multifaceted feedback that ultimately alters policymaking. This article argues that media should be viewed as a networked framework that processes information through their reciprocal effects on another. Keywords ''' Affordances Audiences Internet Media Media Ideology Social Media Space /Place Writing '''Citations Leff, Donna R., David L. Protess, and Stephen C. Brooks. "Crusading Journalism: Changing Public Attitudes And Policy-Making Agendas." Public Opinion Quarterly 50.3 (1986): 300. Business Source Complete. Web. Suhr, Christian, and Rane Willerslev. "Can Film Show The Invisible?." Current Anthropology 53.3 (2012): 282-301. SocINDEX with Full Text. Web. 18 Dec. 2014.